X射线测试

参考：X射线物理学- 邰仁忠 -物理-2021

XRD和精修

原理：等待补充图

XRD本质来讲还是光的干涉，那么图中散射的光是几束平行光，看起来不能发生干涉（不在一条线上）。但是实际上，由于探测端距离散射点的距离相对于晶格间距来说是很大很大的，所以连接探测器和相邻上下两个晶格得到的两条线，数学上来说，这两条线长度的差值就是我们这里的dsinθ。个人感觉，这里的处理方法和单缝夫琅禾费的类似。我们在利用半波带法的时候，也是画出一系列平行的衍射光束，但是实际上最终干涉的叠加效果是干涉增强或者干涉相消。

多晶粉末衍射的解惑：假设某衍射峰位置为2θ°，代表{111}晶面（θ值就是入射线与晶面的夹角）。此时由于高达10亿多的晶粒都在x射线照射区，所以，满足布拉格衍射的晶面有很多，包括{111}{110}{100}。。。等所有的晶面，但是，这些晶面对应的反射线方向均不相同，此时，采集端位置为2θ处，所以只收集了入射角为θ时，满足布拉格衍射的晶面所反射出的衍射波，故而该峰只代表入射角为θ对应的那个满足布拉尔衍射的晶面。

参考资料：
(1) PROFEX——OPEN SOURCE XRD AND RIET VELD REFINEMENT
(2) xrd测晶体类型时，一堆晶体粉末中晶粒是任意取向的，为什么某种晶面还能在特定的θ处产生峰？

 

Single-crystal X-ray Diffraction

 

对原子序数小的元素的定位：A remaining challenge is the unambiguous proof for the location of and compositional ratio between the N³⁻ and O²⁻ ions within the first coordination sphere of Eu²⁺. Usually, single-crystal X-ray diffraction is the most straightforward structure resolving method for such purposes. However, not only are N and O weak X-ray scatterers based on their low atomic number, but also hard to distinguish because they are neighboring elements in the periodic table. In addition, the presence and exact position of Li+ cations in this structure are hard to prove by means of X-ray diffraction and is accompanied by strong disorder effects or split positions in case of mobility. In addition, no indications for a super-structure formation are observable in the X-ray diffraction data of SALON:Eu²⁺, justifying the assignment of O and N positions in the chosen space group in combination with electrostatic calculations.[8] Nevertheless, short-range anion ordering cannot be handled with such average-structure models. Thus, despite its simplicity, X-ray diffraction is pushed to its limitations for such a specific research question.   (来自SALON:Eu²⁺-AOM)

 

XPS

测试掺杂的Mn离子的基态：可根据Mn 2p核心能级的结合能判定荧光粉中Mn⁴⁺/Mn³⁺/Mn²⁺；表征的是样品表面1~10 nm深度的信息。但由于锰元素掺杂量很少，其对应的Mn 2p信号弱，且需要对所得XPS谱进行分峰处理，根据分峰结果来定量表征多种价态锰离子的可靠性存疑。[白光LED用Mn⁴⁺激活荧光粉中锰离子价态的表征研究进展]

X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is an efficient tool to probe the composition of a material as well as the valence state of inserted ions. This technic allows a precise quantification of the concentration of an element. Nevertheless, the doping concentration of luminescent center is very often below its detection threshold. Moreover, XPS is a surface characterization technique with a probing depth of about 10 nm. Even when the dopant ions are randomly distributed in the material, the investigated volume is not always representative of the bulk. Several groups have performed XPS analysis to characterize samples doped with Ce, Eu, or Mn ions. Due to the typically low concentration of dopants, an absolute quantification of each oxidation state of dopant is, in most cases, not possible. XPS spectra analysis of such sample still provides information such as i) the identification of each el ement inserted in the matrix, ii) the evidence of different oxidation states for a dopant, and iii) the relative ratios of concentrations.

[Tuning the oxidation states of dopants: a strategy for the modulation of material photoluminescence properties-Chemistry–A European Journal, 2021]

Ｘ射线吸收近边结构谱

Ｘ射线与物质相互作用时，拥有足够能量的光子被吸收，将使得束缚电子发生跃迁。 由于价带和导带底能级受到邻近配位原子的影响，吸收概率随能量的变化而显示出一种精细结构谱，其中包含原子的化学状态信息ꎬ例如价态、配位数、配位原子、键长等。Ｘ射线吸收精细结构谱(X-ray absorption fine structure XAFS)分为两个区域:由低能光电子在配位原子做多次散射后再回到吸收原子与出射波发生干涉形成的Ｘ射线吸收近边结构(X-ray absorption near edge structure XANES)，其特点是强振荡、以及电离光电子被吸收原子周围的配位原子做单次散射回到吸收原子与出射波发生干涉形成的扩展Ｘ射线吸收精细结构(Extended X-ray absorption fine structure EXAFS)，其特点是振幅不大、似正弦波动。XANES对结合能更敏感，非常适合于价态确定，EXAFS反映分子环境的特性例如配位数、配位离子以及它们之间的距离。XANES技术用于元素价态检测的优点有:适用于具有元素特异性的任何元素浓度灵敏度低(低至 10^-6)，并且适用于检测包括液体和粉末在内的任何形式的样品。

Mn例子价态的测试：在选择了合适的参考化合物的前提下，可定量分析样品中多种价态锰离子的相对含量；但需选择与样品化学环境相近的多种参比样品进行测试，多价态锰离子的相对含量结果与所选参比物密切相关。

参考资料：
(1) 白光LED用Mn⁴⁺激活荧光粉中锰离子价态的表征研究进展
(2) Visualizing the valence states of europium ions in Eu-doped BaAl₂O₄ using X-ray nanoprobe mapping-Journal of Synchrotron Radiation-2022
(3) The determination of dopant ion valence distributions in insulating crystals using XANES measurements—Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter-2016

 

XEOL

Ligand-Mediated Control of Dopant Oxidation State and X‑ray Excited Optical Luminescence in Eu-Doped LaOCl[Suppression of Eu²⁺ Luminescence Loss-AOM-2022]

参考资料：
(1) X-ray excited optical luminescence (XEOL) from phosphors—蔻享

同步辐射测试

XX

参考资料：
(1) 同步辐射应用基础-邹崇文
(2) 不懂点同步辐射，还怎么做科研？
(3) 【夏令营讲座】国之重器——同步辐射光源-中科院高能所
(4) X射线物理学-邰仁忠-中国科学院上海高等研究院

磁学测试

EPR

学习EPR-Interpretation-libretexts

早先的研究认为共振跃迁过程只有电子自旋磁矩的贡献，所以采用ESR这个术语。后面发现仅用电子自旋跃迁是无法完全解释许多实验结果，尤其是来自过渡金属离子的现象，也就是电子轨道磁矩对于跃迁也是有所贡献的，所以逐渐使用EPR取代ESR，这明显表现在现阶段出版的EPR专著或者EPR专门章节中。

EPR分析拟合软件：EasySpin program或WINEPR软件。

水的影响：电子顺磁共振波谱仪为适应实际发展的需要．目前EPR仪器发展的趋势是朝着低频或高频方向发展。在研究含水丰富的生物样品时，如果采用X波段的仪器，由于样品具有高介电常数(比如水)，则微波损耗大(类似微波炉给水加热)，影响谐振腔的Q值，使仪器灵敏度下降，甚至无法检测。如果用低微波频率如S波段和L波段的仪器，就有利于生物样品的测量。为了获得更高的灵敏度和分辨率，电子顺磁共振波谱仪EPR仪器采用高频高场条件，并结合脉冲技术，使波谱仪的性能有了很大提高。

Eu²⁺/Eu³⁺ EPR响应

It is most convenient to detect the change in the valence state of europium ions in various crystal structures by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), because the europium ion in the trivalent state is not a paramagnetic center, and, in the divalent state, it has an uncompensated spin magnetic moment. t. Nag and Kutty associated the absorption lines in the EPR spectrum near g ≈ 2, resulting from the high-energy irradiation of Sr₂SiO₄:Eu crystal samples, with the reduction of Eu³⁺ to the divalent state. [Zyuzin A M, Salkin D A. Effect of X-Ray Radiation on the Valence State of Europium in Y₂O₃: Eu³⁺ Phosphor[J]. Physics of the Solid State, 2019, 61(10): 1804-1807]  $$g=\frac{h \nu}{\beta H}=0.07145 \frac{\nu(\mathrm{G H z})}{H(T)}$$文献中microwave field frequency 为\(\nu=9.2 \mathrm{GHz}\)，计算一下就知道图中的峰对应的就是g ≈ 2，即Eu²⁺的信号。

Eu³⁺的信号(基本没有)：
(1) has a nonmagnetic ⁷F₀ singlet ground state that does not contribute to the ESR spectrum or to the magnetic susceptibility. The ⁷F₁ first excited state has a small thermal population at room temperature and so makes a minor contribution to the susceptibility, but any ESR signal is unobservable owing to strain broadening and fast relaxation. [Infrared femtosecond laser pulse–induced permanent reduction of Eu³⁺ to Eu²⁺ in a fluorozirconate glass-OL-1999] (2) The EPR properties of trivalent europium (Eu³⁺) is relatively little because it is a non-Kramer ion, and its EPR spectrum should be silent because of the short spin-lattice relaxation time.  [Quenching of the Eu³⁺ Luminescence by Cu²⁺ Ions in the Nanosized Hydroxyapatite Designed for Future Bio-Detection-Nanomaterials-2021] 注：non-Kramer离子(轨道量子数L和自旋量子数S均为整数)，在普通的垂直磁场模式下不能激发。

Eu²⁺的信号(玻璃)：In a glass, the crystal field is quasi-random from one site to the next, and so not a sharp-line spectrum but rather a broad absorption with some sharper features at particular g values is observed. .[Infrared femtosecond laser pulse–induced permanent reduction of Eu³⁺ to Eu²⁺ in a fluorozirconate glass-OL-1999]

参考资料：
(1) 【EPR】详解EPR图谱的介绍和4种图谱的分析
(2) 荧光粉中激活剂离子掺杂格位分析-发光学报-姬海鹏
(3) 白光LED用Mn⁴⁺激活荧光粉中锰离子价态的表征研究进展
微信公众号
(4) Electron and hole trapping in Eu- or Eu,Hf-doped LuPO₄ and YPO₄ tracked by EPR and TSL spectroscopy-JMCC-2019

Figure S1. Experimental Q-band (34.000 GHz) EPR spectrum and its simulation for Ba2SiO4:Eu3+ sintered in reducing atmosphere. The powder EPR simulation was performed with the EasySpin libraries in Matlab [S. Stoll and A. Schweiger, J. Magn. Reson., 2006, 178, 42–55] by diagonalization of the spin Hamiltonian: Zetian Yang: , where mB is the Bohr magneton and S=7/2 for Eu2+. A single type of Eu2+ centres is observed with almost perfectly rhombic symmetry (E/D = 1/3). The hyperfine interaction with the central 151/153Eu nucleus (I=5/2 for both isotopes) is not resolved in the spectrum. In order to avoid overparameterization, anisotropy of the g-tensor and higher order Zero-Field Splitting were ignored.

曼大资料

有待补充

Ti³⁺ EPR响应

• 文献[Blue long-lasting phosphorescence of Ti-doped BaZrO₃ perovskites-JL-2009]没有测到 paramagnetic 的Ti³⁺的EPR信号，作者认为可能的原因有两个：
  (1) coupling of F⁺ center and Ti³⁺
  (2) short spin-lattice relaxation time may be a reason for no detection of Ti³⁺ by room temperature ESR measurement.

NMR

XXX

电学测试

交流阻抗谱

交流阻抗谱是根据低频下陶瓷材料电机间形成双电层的电容率(\(10^{-7} \sim 10^{-5} \mathrm{~F} \cdot \mathrm{cm}^{-1} \))来判断离子的昌程迁移，但无法探测离子的短程迁移。

有待补充

 

光学测试

分光光度计

分光光度计通常有两束光，一束光通过样品，而另一束光作为比较的参照样品。以溶液为例，一个是待测溶液，另一个是没有溶质只有溶剂的液体。这样不但可以不考虑其他因素例如反射/散射引起的干扰，而且可以把恒定光变为【交变光】，利于放大。实际测量时，现在两束光路上都放空白样品，调节光的强度，使两束光强度相等。

交流放大电路相比直流更容易？

(1) 紫外可见分光光度计—PPT

 

Dynamic light scattering

动态光散射，也称作光子相关光谱或准弹性光散射，是一种物理表征手段，用来测量溶液或悬浮液中的粒径分布，也可以用来测如量高分子浓溶液等的复杂流体的行为。

参考资料：
(1) dynamic-light-scattering — 3p-instruments
(2) Dynamic light scattering — Wiki
(3) Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS): What Is It?
(4) 物理之旅笔记

 

 

Circularly Polarized Luminescence & Circular Dichroism

Left circularly polarized light和Right circularly polarized light可以通过改变Linear polarizer的角度(转动90度)得到。

注意：It should be noted that the CD signals of a chiral luminescent system do not ensure the observation of CPL signals. On the contrary, CPL-active materials normally display the Cotton effect. 我的理解应该是，表现出circularly polarized luminescent的发光，一定有圆二色性的特征吸收，但是反过来不一定成立。

【圆二色性】Circular Dichroism (CD) is an absorption spectroscopy method based on the differential absorption of left and right circularly polarized light. 即左旋光的和右旋光的差分吸收。

Instrumentation: Most commercial CD instruments are based on the modulation techniques introduced by Grosjean and Legrand. Light is linearly polarized and passed through a monochromator. The single wavelength light is then passed through a modulating device, usually a photoelastic modulator (PEM), which transforms the linear light to circular polarized light. The incident light on the sample switches between LCP and RCP light. As the incident light swtches direction of polarization the absorption changes and the differention molar absorptivity can be calculated.

Polarized luminescence测试

The diversity of the spectra observed was attributed to a difference in the structure of the rare-earth centers depending on the nature of the charged defect which provides local compensation for the excess charge of RE³⁺ substituting the Ca²⁺ ion. A model was proposed for one such center involving compensation of the charge of RE³⁺ by the oxygen ion, O^2-(F^-). This model was subsequently confirmed directly in experiments on polarized luminescence and Zeeman splitting in the f-f spectra. [P.P. Feofilov and the Spectroscopy of Activated Crystals]

XX

参考资料：
(1) Circular Dichroism—Libretexts

(2) Circularly Polarized Luminescence in Nanoassemblies: Generation, Amplification, and Application
Controlled polarized luminescence of smectic lanthanide complexes

 

椭偏仪

Ellipsometry是一种功能强大的分析工具，用于表征许多材料中的薄膜，包括半导体，介电薄膜，金属和聚合物。 它也称为光谱椭偏仪(SE)，它是一种非接触式非破坏性光学技术，可测量与样品相互作用后反射光的偏振变化。 极化的这种变化与材料特性有关。

椭偏法主要用于测量薄膜厚度，折射率(\( n\))和消光系数(\( k\))，但也可以用于研究影响光偏振的其他属性，例如粗糙度，光学各向异性(双折射)，晶体性质，组成，光学带隙和热膨胀。 请注意，此技术不会直接测量这些参数。 为了提取有关薄膜的有用信息，构建了一个描述样品光学参数的模型。 然后，拟合未知参数以获得理论响应和实验数据之间的最佳匹配。

注：没有椭偏仪测试粉末折射率的方法，假设粉末的折射率介于折射率已知的介质A和B之间，那么将A和B按照一定的比例混匀，就可以理论计算出混合后的介质的折射率，然后将粉末(固定质量)与一系列不同比例的A和B的混合物混在一起，那么最后得到的透光性最好的A+B混合物的折射率就可以近似认为是粉末的折射率。冰块放在玻璃杯里面，我们可以透过玻璃看到冰块，其实是冰块的折射率和空气不一样，但是如果往杯子里面倒满水，就看不到冰块的踪迹，因为冰和谁的折射率差不多，所以二者的界面处没有散射。

 

Pump–Probe原理和应用

Pump-probe(泵浦-探测)是一种利用短激光脉冲测量超快现象的技术。当泵浦光照射在样品上时，可以激发出各种各样的物理现象，例如电子激发。随后，经过一个由光学延时线控制的时间延迟后，一束探测光打到泵浦光作用的样品上，此时样品的透射率以及反射率变化都可以被测量出来。我们通过观察时域中的探测光信号来获取被激发样品在衰减过程中的动力学信息。泵浦-探测技术的一大特点就是时域光谱的时间分辨率取决于激光脉冲的长度而并非光电探测器或者电信号采集装置的带宽。有很多研究超快现象的技术都是基于泵浦-探测的方式，例如太赫兹时域光谱和拉曼光谱。

用我自己的话来说，就是先用一个激光(窄带的LED可能也可以)去激发一个稀土离子(或者有机分子)，激发光的强度要稍微大一点，这样处在特定激发态的电子就会更多一些，后面测到的信号就好一些；然后间隔一定时间后，还有一定数量的电子处在激发态，于是用一个宽带的光去照射样品，测透射光谱。

可能涉及的物理过程：

• 激发态吸收ESA；
• 双光子吸收(Two-photon absorption，TPA)，三阶非线性过程，two photons are nearly simultaneously absorbed by the same molecule；
• 受激发射(Stimulated emission)，In this case, the pump beam drives the electron to an excited state. Then the electron emits a photon when exposed to the probe beam. This interaction increases the probe signal at the detector site；
• 基态耗尽(Ground-state depletion，或者Ground-state bleaching)，泵浦光束减少了基态电子的数量，吸收的探测光子更少，探测信号在探测器位置增加。
• Cross-phase modulation，补充xxx

参考资料：
(1) Transient Absorption Spectroscopy-Michael Evans-油管视频
(2) Flash Photolysis-Michael Evans-油管视频
(3) Principles of Transient Absorption Spectroscopy-Kamat Lab
(4) 泵浦-探测技术介绍
(3) Pump–Probe Microscopy: Theory, Instrumentation, and Applications

迈克逊干涉仪

如果以太存在，地球在运动时必然穿行在其中。假定地球绕太阳 转动是把所有以太都拖着一起运动，显然十分荒谬。我们可以通过测量从不同方向射到地球的光速差异，来测出 “以太风" (ether wind)的 速度。迈克耳孙 (Albert A. Michelson) 在莫雷 (Edward Morley，1838-1923) 的协助下完成了按照这种思路设计的一系列实验, 却发现了一个零结果 (null result)：光速与发射的方向无关。于是爱因斯坦做出了明确而大胆的推断：光以对任何观测者恒定的速度传播；除了 真空没有任何媒质。

半波损失：半波损失是指波从波疏介质射向波密介质时反射过程中，反射波在离开反射点时的振动方向相对于入射波到达入射点时的振动相反的现象。对于反射光而言，不同的肥皂泡厚度有利于不同波长的光干涉加强，所以肥皂泡呈现各种颜色。注意，上面的公式写错了，应该是\(2 dn=(k+1/2) \lambda \quad k=0,1,2,3 \cdots\)，其中\(n\)是薄膜的折射率。

薄膜干涉

引力波测试

参考资料：
1. 引力波探测的简单说明

 

红外光谱

MCT探测器：红外光谱仪检测器的一种，用于傅立叶变换型红外光谱仪中。MCT是mercury cadmium telluride的英文缩写。采用Hg-Cd-Te (Hg_1−xCd_xTe)半导体材料薄膜，又称光电导检测器。吸收辐射后非导电性的价电子跃迁至高能量的导电带，从而降低了半导体的电阻，产生信号。该检测器用于中红外及远红外区，需冷至液氮温度(77K)以降低噪声。这种检测器比热电检测器灵敏，在FT-IR及GC/FT-IR仪器中广泛应用。

https://sisu.ut.ee/heritage-analysis/book/export/html/19022

传统的红外光谱

参考资料：
1. FTIR Basics – Principles of Infrared Spectroscopy
2. 红外光谱拉曼光谱分不清楚？看这篇文章就够了！
3. 2018年你一定不能错过的史上最全红外知识汇总

 

拉曼光谱

这里有点类似Mn⁴⁺在氟化物中的发光，既有ZPL(说的是激发光和发射光波长相同的那个ZPL，因为Mn⁴⁺中有多个ZPL，对应不同能级的跃迁)，又有斯托克斯和反斯托克斯发光。

Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS)

参考资料：
(1) 涨知识！拉曼光谱32个常见问题汇

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

The Photon Counting Histogram in Fluorescence Fluctuation Spectroscopy

Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy—锡根大学课程

Mössbauer Spectroscopy

参考：
(1) Characterization of Luminescent Materials with ¹⁵¹Eu Mössbauer Spectroscopy
(2) 高大上的“穆斯堡尔谱”，你确定不来学习下？
(3) BAM:Eu2+-Mössbauer Spectroscopy

 

其他

内耗谱

内耗谱是通过测试不同应力频率、不同温度下块体材料内耗弛豫和模量损失来表征牟征缺陷运动，但是无法无损原位地表征光功能材料。

有待补充

中子衍射

中子衍射技术虽然能够测定原子的具体位置，并且在加热条件下能够原位观察某些离子如碱金属离子、氧离子的运动，但是中子衍射设备是大型科学装置，无法进行常规测试。

Kubelka-Munk theory

透射电镜

左图：透射电子显微镜获得的Si (110)面的原子像；
右图：Mn2O3沿[1111] (zone axis)的电子衍射花样。
两者的区别是，晶体的原子像具有空间平移对称性，而衍射花样在空间上是平移对称的，但当计入强度时，则没有平移对称性了，后者能更有效地揭示晶体的对称性。参考：物理学咬文嚼字之二十四-对偶

 

OMA

光学多通道分析仪(Optical multichannel analyzer)

参考资料：
(1) 光学多通道分析仪及其应用-物理-1985

 

 

Phosphor Handbook中测试有关

Spectral sensitivity correction

由于spectrometer或者light detector在entire spectral range 并没有均一的灵敏度，所以raw data 必须被校准。不同波长的Correction coefficients，通过标准灯来校准。标准灯在不同波长的radiation power是已知的。校准后的光谱 is generated as the product of the correction coefficients and raw spectral data。由于这个correction coefficients can also change over time, periodic calibration of the system is recommended. 当进行非常严格的测试的时候，需要测标准灯的谱图，然后校准。

Baseline correction

我们得到的spectral data通常 are superimposed on a baseline. Baseline来源于系统运行的DC signal。Dark current of the photomultiplier tube, stray light (杂散光), DC bias of electronic component all contribute to the baseline curve. 通过subtracting the baseline to the observed spectral data,我们可以得到true spectral data. 针对baseline中不同的来源可以有不同的校准方法。 The conventional method of correcting the baseline is to substrate the lowest signal data from the complete data. Care must be taken, however, to find the true minimum by observing the entire spectral distribution. Otherwise, small data peaks could be erroneously eliminated by this correction.

提高信噪比(signal-to-noise)

光谱或者decay curve 都可能 be distorted if random noise is superimposed on the data. 为了尽量消除这个影响，有两种方式：

• To acquire data repeatedly ad then obtain the arithmetic mean of the total signal. (平均法)
• To estimate the value at a point by taking the average of adjacent data points (the moving average method)
  

方法1的standard deviation of random noise decrease in proportion to 1/根号N.随着N的增大，the degree of improvement brought about by this averaging, however, becomes smaller as the contribution of each measurement becomes smaller. 方法2，如果N取值很大，但是间隔没有变，那么可能把光谱变broadened, 最终就是is distorted。也可以改进方法2，前面增加权重系数。

Measurements of excitation spectra

入射光相对于样品45度入射。 从长波长开始扫描，scanning from longer wavelengths to shorter wavelengths was found to be effective in prevention of color center formation in the sample. In the EUV region below 100 nm, synchrotron radiation spectroscopy is very useful.同步辐射光谱。

Kubelka-Munk’s theory

Within a phosphor coating, excitation energy is absorbed after multiple scattering by individual particles. The generated luminescent light also comes out of the coating after scattering. Hence, it is impossible to describe the total optical process of absorption, excitation, and emission in a phosphor layer in a rigorously analytical manner, and some approximation must be introduced. 必须进行一定的近似处理才能得到有用的信息。

The scattering coefficient s is, in fact, dominated by particle size and refractive index of the sample. It is not a strong function of the wavelength or the absorption coefficient, so the K-M model considers it a constant. In reality, the scattering coefficient does vary slowly with wavelength. More importantly, it changes significantly with packing density, so care should be taken to pack powdered samples as reproducibly as possible if quantitative results are required. 散射系数确实不怎么随波长变化，但是随packing density 变化明显，所以为了保证定量实验的可重复性，必须特别注意这一点。参考资料

 

文献报道的好的测试装置

1.

   

参考资料：Physical Review Letters, 2020, 125(3): 033001

2.

参考资料：Saturation Mechanisms in Common LED Phosphors

• ND filter就是neutral density filter，降低输出光的强度的；
• Top-hat beam shaper，

3.  Radiophotoluminescence Imaging Reader for Passive Dosimetry

3. Oxidation of Sm²⁺ in β-irradiated Sm-doped borosilicate glasses under laser illumination

Laser: Nd-YAG
l_f: focusing lens
C: laser powermeter
l_c1: fluorescence collecting lens
F: lowpass or supernotch filter for suppression of the scattered laser
light
l_c2: fluorescence focusing lens
OMA-III: Optical Multichannel Analyser

4. Temperature control system for PL

For PL spectra at high temperature, soldering iron, single phase power regulator and programmable temperature controller were set up. The samples were set up on a soldering iron and temperature was controlled from 30 °C to 200 °C by a programmable temperature controller (RKC, PF900) equipped with single phase power regulator (RKC, THV- 1). 参考[The Synthesis and Evaluation of Thermally Stable Eu-doped Silicate Phosphors in White LEDs Application-PHD]

5. 参考[An Integrated System for Radioluminescence, Termoluminescence and Optically Stimulated Luminescence Measurements]

6. Phosphor Thermometry " Preliminary Development of a Phosphor Thermometry System"

参考资料：论文

7. A novel coupled RPL/OSL system to understand the dynamics of the metastable states